United States v. Wade Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

United States v. Wade - Case Study Example During the trial, Wade's legal counsel tried to get an acquittal for their client based upon their belief that the Fifth Amendment Rights of their client was violated as the line up was done without any legal counsel present to advise the accused of his rights. The courts denied the motion, resulting in the conviction of Wade in the end (n.d., â€Å"United States v. Wade). This led the defense to file a motion before the Supreme Court in order to request that they resolve the issue of allowing courtroom identifications of an accused to be excluded from evidence since the events surrounding the identification process was done without the presence of counsel. The events before the trial at the post indictment line up was therefore illegally conducted and was violation of his client's Fifth Amendment Rights (n.d., â€Å"United States v. Wade†). They requested that the Supreme Court overturn the decision of the lower court in the process. The Supreme Court however, did not find a ny reason to dismiss the case against Wade. It was the opinion of the court that the lack of counsel at the line up proceedings could not be seen as a violation of the accused Fifth Amendment Right against self incrimination. ... That is, provided that the prosecution would be able to support the pretrial line up identification the accused with a solid and valid court identification of the accused as well (n.d., â€Å"The United State v. Wade†). Therefore, it was the opinion of the court that the Fifth Amendment Right to self incrimination was not violated in this case as the line up identification did not show that there was any testimonial or communicative evidence that needed to be suppressed. On the other hand, the Sixth Amendment Right to counsel was violated in the pretrial proceedings since the accused had a right to legal representation during critical stages of the pretrial proceedings, specially during the identification stages. Proper witness identification can easily be influenced during an investigation due to the nervousness and trauma that the witness had to endure during the incident. Therefore their memory recall of the perpetrators and the events as it unfolded may have a cloud of dou bt about it. That is why the police rely on certain variables in order to ensure that the eyewitness accounts are as accurate and court admissible as possible. The key factors relating to the accuracy of witness identification, that can easily offset the suggestiveness and bias of show ups include (Moses, â€Å"Misidentification: the Caprices of Eye Witness Testimony in Criminal Cases†): â€Å"(1) Perception; (2) Memory; (3) Communication; and (4) Candor. â€Å" However, these traits are not easily acquired by people and therefore affects the way that a witness gives an account of the things that happened during the incident, thereby making the witness prone to suggestive questioning. Let us remember that perception is created by the events as the witness wants to

Hume and Kant on Free

Hume and Kant on Free Will Essay Abstract This paper is an attempt to show how Kant’s ideas concerning practical and transcendental freedom of the will was a significant correction to the parallel theories of Hume. It starts out by clarifying Hume’s critique of free will, especially as it appears in An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. It draws the conclusion that Hume’s philosophy is espousing skepticism, and that Kant’s effort is to overcome this skepticism and restore trust in reason. The philosophy of Kant is outlined in order to make the last point. It is generally agreed that Kant supplied the definitive stamp to philosophy that ushered in the modern age. Hume, though enormously influential in his time, and a favorite in the French salons of philosophy, fell into disrepute in the Victorian era, and only since has become a subject of restored interest. Yet Hume is the philosopher cited by Kant as having stirred him from his â€Å"dogmatic slumbers’. He had espoused a philosophy of empirical skepticism, so thorough and devastating in its scope that it became impossible for Kant to remain in his settled certainties of Newtonian science. It was the spur that carried him on to compose the Critique of Pure Reason (1781), where reason is restored, and man is once more vindicated as a rational being. Just because he refuted and answered Hume’s skepticism does not imply that the latter philosophy is nullified. We must keep this in mind, that Hume’s skepticism is completely valid as far as sense experience is concerned, and Kant does not refute any part of this philosophy. What he does is posit a further dimension to human understanding, specifically, the synthetic a priori faculty of the mind, the existence of which Hume did not suspect. Only after this addition is the primacy of reason restored. So we cannot say that Kant has destroyed Hume’s philosophy, rather he has added to it. Central to Hume’s skepticism is his critique of â€Å"cause and effect†, which is spelled out to its most profound depths in chapter VII of the An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748). The preliminary task is to outline the copy principle. The premise to this is that all knowledge begins from sense experience. Among such we are able to distinguish between primary and secondary sensations. The primary sensations are extension, motion, inertia etc, which are indeed the concepts that physics tackles. Color, taste, smell etc are said to be secondary sensations, composed or derived from the primary ones. The copy principle says that the primary sensations, though not delivering complete information from the material object – which is more poignantly described as â€Å"the object in itself – nevertheless is a faithful copy of it. This is why primary sensations are distinct and forceful presences in our mind. Secondary sensations are in turn copies of the original copy, and due to this derivative nature they lose distinctness to us. We will examine the copy principle of Hume in a moment. For the time being we accept it as such and consider the consequences. For Hume’s purposes, it has allowed him to refer to objects and their motions with confidence, and not to be held back by the validity of these concepts. For without the principle we don’t know as yet that objects are objects, and motion is motion, and we would have had to deal with a chaos of sense experience, and nothing meaningful to refer to it against (1993, p. 12). So now, with the copy principle of Hume as foundation, we proceed to talk about objects in motion. Next, we observe interdependence between objects, carried out in space and time. We â€Å"know† that motion in one object is â€Å"cause† to motion in another. A billiard ball in motion strikes another, and after impact the second acquires a velocity too, and the faculty of our understanding tells us, without the least inkling of doubt, that the impact imparted by the first ball is the cause of the second ball gaining motion. This understanding is so refined that we can, with a little help from Newton’s mechanics, predict the exact trajectory of the second ball by analyzing the trajectory of the first. We know it, but how do we know it? This is the crucial question for Hume. For if we do not have the answer we are left with skepticism. After impact with the first ball the second could have taken any one of an infinite number of trajectories. But it takes only one, and indeed we expect it to take only that one. A physicist may come along and try to convince us that it could not have taken any other trajectory because the laws of motion stipulates that, with the initial conditions given, the path it takes is the only possible one. But this is not an answer to the observer of the billiard ball, because he doesn’t care what the laws of physics are. If nature had followed another mathematical law then another outcome would have been just as valid. The observer could then have framed his conundrum differently: Of the infinite possible mathematical laws why just that one? There is nothing in the inner logic of the situation that dictates that the first ball should produce exactly the prescribed trajectory in the second. Hume said this about the experimental set-up, that we may try an experiment ten times, and may arrive at the exact same result ten times. But this does not prove that the specific outcome is inevitable. Not even if we confirmed the outcome a million times, because we would still only have a statistical probability and not a proof. Hume’s conclusion is that there is no rational link between cause and effect. Yet we expect effect to follow cause, immediately and irrevocably. If this is so then, explains Hume, it is a feeling transmitted to us by custom. What exactly he means by custom is left vague. He could not have meant anything other than â€Å"observing over and over again†, even though this fails to take into account new experience. He himself supplies a famous counterexample in the Enquiry. Some one who has experienced all the shades of blue, except for a tiny strip of the spectrum, is expected to report a gap when looking at the full spectrum of blue. But the fact is that he does not observe a gap at all, and recognizes at once the full spectrum of blue, even though he is experiencing a particular shade on blue for the first time. The recognition was instantaneous, and the eye did require â€Å"accustoming† beforehand. This readily disposes the theory of â€Å"custom†. Hume, however, continues to insist that our convictions regarding cause and effect can have no other source than custom. That the inference to custom is a vague one is made clear when he comes to consider free will. The very act of consciousness, he says, testifies to the existence of free will. But coming to reflect on how it is possible that we are able to willingly set our limbs into motion, and to move and external object thereby, it appears nothing less than miraculous. The mystery in nothing less than how one immaterial body imparts momentum to another: For first: Is there any principle in all nature more mysterious than the union of soul with body; by which a supposed spiritual substance acquires such an influence over a material one, that the most refined thought is able to actuate the grossest matter? (Hume, 1993, p. 43) The upshot is that we cannot explain free will, just as surely as we cannot explain cause and effect. ‘Custom’ was hesitantly introduced to explain cause and effect, and the same comes to the rescue of free will. As constant observers of nature we come to expect an effect to always follow a cause, and the same analysis ought to be applied to the orbit of human will. In all times and in all places humans have shown a constancy in their day to day affairs, which points to a constancy in human nature. The speculation concerning the scope of free will is overdone by the philosophers, maintains Hume. The exercise of free will, when looked at through the vista of human history, does not display divergence as much as it displays constancy. Hume broaches on the distinction between freedom and necessity to make this point clear. Inanimate objects convey to us most clearly the quality of freedom. We may describe an inanimate object as indifferent to the rest of the material universe, and in that sense free. But this freedom also entails necessity. The object is subject to the necessary laws of causation, and indeed is bound entirely by them. This is the relationship that binds cause and effect to inanimate objects, and is a relationship that is composed of both freedom and necessity. Hume transposes the same analysis to the relationship between human beings and free will. The will is indeed free, but being so implies that it conforms to human nature. He proposes the following definition: By liberty, then, we can only mean a power of acting or not acting, according to the determinations of the will; this is, if we choose to remain at rest, we may; if we choose to move, we also may. (1993, p. 63) The notion of free will advanced here bears a crucial difference to the popular one, and begs to be spelt out. What Hume describes as free will is not a choice between course ‘A’ and ‘B’. Rather the choice is between ‘A’ and ‘not A’, the latter implying stagnation, not an alternative course. This is the entire extent of our free will. We choose either to move forward, or else to stand still. This is what Hume would describe as freedom to act. Free will, however, is in complete accordance with human nature, and therefore follows the laws of necessity, just as everything else in contingent reality. Free will urges us to act â€Å"freely†. With freedom to act we may respond to this urge, or we may desist. In the final analysis our understanding of free will hinges on custom, in the same way as does our understanding of cause and effect. The past is guide to the future in the probabilistic sense. Beyond probabilities we have no understanding of either, contends Hume. In order to enforce this skepticism he proceeds to dismantle the Cartesian theories that pretended to explain mind and matter interaction, especially the theory of occasionalism advanced by Father Nicholas Malebranche. In this theory God is made both motivator and executor of every act or incident that seems to be â€Å"cause†, while the circumstances which we call a cause are only occasions for God to act in such a manner. Hume complained that this not only made God a slave to his own creation, but it also eradicated free will, making everything â€Å"full of God† (1993, p. 47). By disposing summarily the Cartesian explanations of cause and effect Hume makes his skepticism complete. Kant overcomes this skepticism by revising the premise of Hume. The correction is made most forcefully in the opening to the Critique: Although all our knowledge begins with experience, it does not follow that it arises entirely from experience.   For it is quite possible that our empirical knowledge is a compound of that which we receive through impressions and that which our own faculty of knowing (incited by impressions) supplies from itself†¦ (1999, p. 1) To be fair to Hume, he does consider this possibility, and ponders whether there is a blueprint in the mind where all ‘causes’ and all ‘effects’ can be referred back. (1993, p. 44). But he dismisses this idea when he realizes that a static blueprint can never account for the dynamic reality. However, the faculty that Kant is suggesting is not static, rather dynamic and creative, and here lies the crucial difference. In the technical terms of Kant it is the synthetic a priori faculty of the mind. This is distinguished from the analytic a priori faculty, such as logic. The rules of logic are extant in the mind (a priori), but form a self-consistent system (analytical), and therefore do not depend on sense experience. On the first instance it seems impossible that the mind can have a faculty that is synthetic a priori, where synthetic implies that it is creative. It entails that order is created out of the chaos of sense experience, and order that was not there before. But Kant also provides proof that the mind is capable of synthesis. Mathematical propositions are synthetic a priori, he contended. The proposition â€Å"3 + 5 = 8† may sound like self-consistent logic, but it is not really so. â€Å"8† is a completely new concept, and is not contained in either â€Å"3†, â€Å"5† or â€Å"+†. If we know that â€Å"3 + 5 = 8†, it is due to a synthetic a priori faculty in the mind. As Kant relates in the Prolegomena, when he realized that mathematical propositions are indeed synthetic a priori, it led him to ponder on what other such concepts the mind uses to facilitate understanding, and it appeared to him, in due course, that â€Å"cause and effect† was a concept of understanding that derives from the same faculty. He does not at all concern himself with material reality as a â€Å"thing in itself†, that which the materialist philosophers were after in order to provide a foundation to Newtonian science. Like Hume he maintains throughout that an absolute material reality is beyond knowledge, and to speculate on its existence was futile. We only need to consider what we perceive and what we do. He also shows that Hume falters at exactly those points where he cannot dismiss material existence in itself. The copy principle is slavish to a material object in itself. The object does not deliver copies to our mind; rather the mind provides the concepts of space in which we are able to conjure up material objects from sensory data. Both â€Å"space† and â€Å"time† are pure concepts of the mind, contends Kant, and like â€Å"cause and effect† are the tools by which we come to understand contingent reality (Prolegomena, 2005, p. 26). As soon as it is made out that we are the responsible architects of our own reality, and are not passive bystanders to an absolute material reality beyond our control, we suddenly discover ourselves as moral beings. Therefore the subsequent direction of Kant’s philosophy, after the metaphysics of understanding has been established, is towards a metaphysics of morals. And so emerges the crucial distinction that Kant makes between practical and transcendental freedom. To say that we have practical freedom implies we are able to understand the world, and by doing so we direct the will accordingly. We will do so of course for practical purposes – survival, utility, convenience, happiness etc. this would seem to cover the entire orbit of freedom. But Kant went on to demonstrate, in his Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals (1785), that such freedom is not actually freedom at all, and indeed is a binding. Thus far Kant is in concord with Hume. Now, the metaphysics of understanding, as spelt out in the Critique, is not the entire picture. The synthetic a priori faculty of the mind fashions understanding out of sensory experience. But such understanding does not lead to truth. As pure concepts of understanding space and time are both necessarily infinite. But because they emanate from the finite mind they are also finite. So in their very make-up space and time lead to contradictions. The same end must necessarily meet anything that takes place within space and time. So that matter is both infinitely divisible and also made up of concrete building blocks. As another example, we have free will, but at the same time everything is caused, so we don’t have free will. Such examples are put forward by Kant as pairs of â€Å"antinomies†. According to our understanding both consequences are valid, and yet they mutually contradict each other. All practical reasoning necessarily leads to pairs of antinomies. This must be so, because we reason by means of subject and predicate, where the subject is the cause of the predicate. But this subject is in turn predicate to another subject, and so on in an infinite chain of causation. If there was an ultimate subject at the beginning of this chain, we could have claimed to have discovered the final cause, and thereby have at hand a pronouncement of truth. But in contingent reality there is no such final cause. So whenever we try to make pronouncements of truth we must face contradiction. We cannot say that practical reason is false for this reason. Life is ruled by contingencies, and practical reason is to explain the contingent, or to facilitate such understanding. Absolute truth lies beyond all contingencies, and this is ruled by â€Å"pure† reason, explains Kant. It is not within the grasp of the human mind, yet it is the underpinning of the mind, and is the source of all innate faculties. The same analysis applies to practical freedom, which is but the corollary to practical reason. With practical freedom we choose our course according to practical reason, i.e. we are motivated by self-serving motives – happiness, honor, respectability, and so on. But in doing so we bind ourselves to those endless chains of contingencies, so that we are not really free. We chase material acquisition in order to be happy, and yet it always eludes us. The definition of freedom is to escape all contingencies, and yet by the application of practical reason we are mired more and more into contingent reality. Therefore we are not free. This is indeed a contradiction, one which Hume does not pay heed to. The very act of consciousness tells us that we are free, that out will is free. If practical reason does not embody this freedom, then surely pure reason must do so. By the same token, we are in possession of a transcendental freedom, which is a path that overcomes all contingencies, and is dictated by pure reason. Kant describes this path as the moral one. We recognize and follow this path from a sense of duty. To clarify what it is, duty is done for its own sake. There is no material motive whatsoever attached to it. Not for any particular good, it is done for the universal good. It is a categorical imperative, meaning that the very make-up of our being, or pure reason, dictates that we follow it. As an aid to identifying one’s duty Kant devised the following wording for the categorical imperative: â€Å"I ought never to act except in such a way that I could also will that my maxim should become a universal law† (Moral Law, 2005, p. 74). Kant is described as overcoming Hume’s skepticism. But it is questionable whether the latter is a skeptic at all. According to a contemporary, Hume’s philosophical paradoxes are delivered with a confidence that belies skepticism: â€Å"Never has there been a Pyrrhonian more dogmatic† (qtd. in Mossner, 1936, p. 129). A more recent reassessment of Hume is carried out by the German Neo-Kantian philosopher Ernst Cassirer, who opines, â€Å"Hume’s doctrine is not to be understood as an end, but as a new beginning† (1951, p. 59). The nature of this new beginning is well articulated by Hume himself. â€Å"Indulge your passion for science,† nature tells us, according to Hume, â€Å"but let your science be human, and such as may have a direct reference to action and society† (Hume, 1993, p. 3). If we listen carefully, the moral note that Hume is sounding is hardly different from that of the categorical imperative of Kant. Not for the person’s sake, but for humanity’s sake. Not for the particular good but for the universal good. This is the essence of Hume’s projected â€Å"science of man†, as it is also the heart of Kant’s metaphysics of morals. References Cassirer, E. (1951). The Philosophy of the Enlightenment. Trans. Fritz C. A. Koelln and James P. Pettegrove. Boston: Beacon Press. Hume, D. (1993). An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. E. Steinberg (Ed.) Boston: Hackett Publishing. Kant, I. (1999). Critique of Pure Reason. W. S. Pluhar (Trans.), E. Watkins (Ed.) Boston: Hackett Publishing. Kant, I. (2005). Kants Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing. Kant, I. (2005). The Moral Law: Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals. Translated by H. J. Paton. New York: Routledge. Mossner, E. C. (1936). Bishop Butler and the Age of Reason: A Study in the History Of Thought. New York: Macmillan.

Discussion On Ambiguous Newspaper Headline English Language Essay

Discussion On Ambiguous Newspaper Headline English Language Essay Introduction This assignment is undertaken to understand the language ambiguity and its constituents. A language is used to convey the thought or idea to the audience or the receiver from communicator side. It may happen that the decoder or the receiver do not understand the sentence in a way, in which they are intended for. 1. Two Sisters Reunited After 18 Years At Checkout Counter Two Sister Reunited after 18 years [at checkout counter] Two sisters reunited after 18 years at checkout counter1 (a) 1(b) The Sentence Two Sisters Reunited After 18 Years At Checkout Counter has been shown above with the help of tree diagrams..1 (a) and 1 (b) Interpretation: 1(a) Suggest the sentence meaning that two sister reunited after 18 years at the checkout counter of a mall or at any other premises. It means that they meet after a long time after 18 years. 1 (b) Argue that on the funny part that it has been taken a long 18 year to clear the checkout counter hence the two sisters meet after 18 years. This cannot be possible in a real scenario that such a long time has been taken to clear the checkout counter for the sisters. 2. Man Eating Piranha Mistakenly Sold As Pet Fish 2 (e) A man who is eating a piranha which was mistakenly sold as a pet fish A piranha of the man-eating variety which was mistakenly sold as a pet fish2 (a) A man mistakenly eating a piranha which was sold as a pet fish A man sold as a pet fish who is mistakenly eating a piranha.2 (b) 2 (d) A man, eating a piranha, who himself was mistakenly sold as a pet fish. 2 (c ) Interpretation: 2 (a) means that a man is eating piranha which was sold to by mistake as a pet fish, hence man is innocent and dont know about the piranha, he was eating. He is eating the piranha as a simple fish without being aware of this nature of the fish. 2 (b) Here the man who is eating piranha sold the pet fish. Here the subject is man who sold the pet fish while eating a piranha. 2 (c) From this we can guess the man being himself sold as a pet fish while he was eating piranha. The man was eating piranha and he being sold simultaneously. 2 (d) Here the mistake is of man a different from 2 (a) where the fault is of seller. Here the eater made the mistake and by mistake he eats the piranha which was sold as a pet fish. 2 (e) this can also be referred Piranha could be name given to any other thing other than the fish varieties. Hence Piranha could be other editable variety which was sold as a pet fish by mistake. For Example: Mary bought a brand new Hitachi radio. It was in Selfridges window. Later, when Joan saw it, she too decided it would be good purchase. a) Here the part of the above sentence it was in Selfridges window is a ambiguous statement. A full sure set full specification of the above sentence cannot be given it can lead to two meaning as the referent of the pronoun cannot be specified. Like it can be physically present in Selfridge window. b) In other case it can be one of the many Hitachi radio that were available at Selfridges window. Hence the ambiguity is there but it depends upon the decoder or receiver how he or she perceive things. 3. Lawmen from Mexico Barbecue Guests Lawmen from Mexico Barbecue Guests Lawmen from Mexico [Barbecue Guests] 3 (a) 3(b) 3 (a) Lawmen from Mexico has barbecue his guests a funny ambiguity means the Lawmen a Noun has cooked his guest. 3(b) I explain Lawmen is person belong or coming from Mexico is the guest for the day at barbecue party or dinner. For example: I watched some playful children and some happy dogs from the playground The argument on this sentence is possible by two ways. How ambiguous the sentence is has been shown in square brackets to denote constituency. a)Â  I watched [some playful children and some happy dogs] from the playground. Here the playground qualifies for the viewer not for the playful children and happy dogs hence the watching has been taken place form the play ground and the person see the playful children and some happy dogs in a place other than the play ground. Â   (b)Â  [I watched [some playful children and some happy dogs from the playground]]Â   Here the playground qualifies for the children and some happy dogs and not for the person who is looking at them hence the playful children and some happy dogs are at ground while the watchful person is not at ground. 4. Enraged Cow Injures Farmer With Axe Enraged Cow injures farmer with Axe 4 (a) 4 (b) An enraged farmer injures a Cow with an axe 4 (a) It simple suggest that a agitated cow injures farmer with Axe. However this is not possible how a cow can attack over farmer with Axe. As cow dont know the art the of manipulation of Axe. But the simple meaning of the sentence says that the enraged cow injures farmer with Axe. 4 (b) If we rearrange the wording by little and form a new sentence by new arrangement, we reached to a meaningful conclusion. An enraged farmer injures a cow with an axe which could be possible as it argue that the angered farmer injures the cow with an axe. Answer 5 Question 5: Grammar (grammatical functions) Syntactic Category: A syntactic category can be of two types either a phrasal category it has two part noun phrase and verb phrase. It can further be decomposed into samll-2 syntactic categories or in other way lexical category, such as noun, verb, prepositions, etc. Which further cannot be decomposed? Basically there are only three criteria available in defining syntactic categories. The type of meaning it expresses The type of affixes it takes The structure in which it occurs While drawing a linguistic tree it has to be keep in mind that the left side of the arrow can suggest phrasal categories while lexical categories cannot be on the left side of the arrow. Rationally lexical categories are known as part off speech. Any sentence can be broken down into part of speech which includes a subject, verb, prepositions, adjectives, objects and so on so forth. (Linguistics: an introduction to language and communication) Grammatical Function: From the grammatical point of view a grammatical function can be defined as a functional relationship or grammatical relationship between the participants in syntax. For example: subject, adjunct, complement, object etc. it should be noted down that these are different from the semantic notions of agent and patient. It can be demonstrate by the fact that the how the English passive voice change the agent and patient relationship how the object became subject and a subject became object. a) [The woman who lives in the caravan] [[finally] told [her future husband] [the truth]] the syntactic category of the first sentence [the woman who lives in the caravan] is lexical category. The woman is noun, which lives are mod, the verbal part is lives and in caravan is the object part. [Finally] is other verbal part. [Her future husband] here the noun part is her that is a pronoun and future husband is the object or verbal part. Here the woman is a doer and action oriented the noun. Who is an interrogatory word which talked about who live in the caravan that is the woman herself? The future husband is object to whom the truth being told. b) [After the news about the baby], [Alfie] [felt [a total fool]] [After the news about the baby] is in itself a full syntax or sentence. Here the noun phrase is the baby and verbal part is after the news about is conjunctions and prepositions. [Alfie] is the persona it can be man or woman not gender specific its a noun a subject noun part. Felt is verb which infers that the Alfie fall after as soon he/she heard the news about the baby. [A total fool] it seems to be another additional syntax. Without this syntax the sentence is in it was complete though by addition to this it gives a new meaning to the sentence. It is itself a objective or verbal phrase this was talked about the noun as a total fool total adjective and fool can be noun. c) [Many viewers] [consider [Alfie] [an unlikely father-figure]] The first part of the sentence [many viewers] many is the quantum part it is itself is a part of verbal phrase many viewers are the noun who were involve in watching. Consider as a thought of viewer about the Alfie how and what they think about Alfie. [alfie] the in the syntax is again a noun part while in the sentence [consider [Alfie] [an unlikely father-figure]] it is noun part too here it has been talked to consider alfie is unlikely father -figure. [An likely father-figure] is a verbal part. Likely is the verb which describes the viewers opinion about the Alfie. Discussion It is common practice among English teacher to discuss about metaphor. And it can be better understood by applying the logic of metaphor as most of the student is having some understanding and grasp of metaphor. Hence metaphor is taken as an example to understand the grammatical form and their fuction. We will understand it taking the example of people and their occupation. There are only two type of people on the earth man and woman. Since we do live in this real world hence the concept of two types of people or form is comparatively easy for us to comprehend. So, the two forms of people are: Man Woman But the occupation in which these two people are engaged are multiple or countless. It may be a teacher, doctor, mother, father , doctor, engineer, manager, supervisor etc. occupations are the function which people do hence they are the functions of people for example Mother Father Teacher Doctor Lawyer Engineer There are only two form (man and woman) while the function for these forms are unlimited for example (teacher, mother, father, doctor etc). The forms are what the people look like and the functions are what they do. It is not imperative that the man form of people can manage all the function, for example a man can not be a mother or a woman cannot be a father. A man can be father as well as doctor too. A woman can be a mother as well as teacher too. Hence it may or may not be possible for a fore to perform one or more than one function or any specific function. But for a function may or may not be performed by any form. Answer 6 The given is the list of utensils commonly used in kitchen. After carrying on the practical task as asked in the question at hand, the results were found. The following are the kitchen utensils selected by the 3 participants Participant 1 bread-bin fork frying pan knife microwave mixer oven plate spoon toaster Participant 2 teacup teapot spoon wooden spoon oven microwave plate bowl chopping board fork Participant 3 toaster nutcracker saucer saucepan salad spinner sink-plunger sink plug bowl plate blender Rating of the utensils as written by the first 3 participants were as follows:- Participant A bread- bin 3 fork 2 frying pan 2 knife 1 microwave -3 mixer -3 oven -2 plate 1 spoon 3 toaster -1 Participant B teacup 3 teapot -2 spoon -1 wooden spoon -4 oven -3 microwave -3 plate -2 bowl 2 chopping board -7 fork -3 Participant C toaster -2 nutcracker -4 saucer -2 saucepan -4 salad spinner -5 sink-plunger -5 sink plug 5 bowl -2 plate -2 blender -3 Prototype theory, basically aims to understand the nouns commonly used in everyday practice for learning the situation at hand for the daily activities (Ross, 2006; Geeraerts, 2006; Evans and Green, 2006). Both these researchers quite well worked on the theory of prototype to understand the social stereotypes. Ross (2006) divides the prototypes into 4 categories such as:- Vagueness There are chances for the vagueness of some of the items. There are certain items such as sink plunger and sink plug, which look sometimes common. Participants are sometimes confused with the words. There are instances that the utensils need to be remembered for use. However, most of the other utensils were clearly recalled by the participants. The participants made use of the utensils, which are quite common in practice. These utensils are found of everyday use in the kitchens day- to- day activities. Therefore, the utensils with vagueness were recalled in mind for clarification in front of the participants. Typicality There are chances that the similar products have different level of typicality. The products shall not have that level of complexity attached with them. Nutcracker, for an example is one of the products with quite higher level of complexity attached with it. The respondents have although, easily listed the utensils such as plate, spoon, bowl etc. These utensils are found in common use in the kitchen. This acted as the major factor to retain the memory space of individuals for these utensils. Genericity Some of the products are quite common at the most instances. However, the products, which do not have common practice to be remembered, are also thereon. The genericity of certain products create the need for extensive thought on the product. The spoon and plate for an example, are the generally used products in the kitchen. Opacity It is not an easy task to divide the products into groups. There is the need for clear understanding of the products at hand. This can help in formulation of groups of different types. The categories are designed based on the product of choice, and their features involved, and the usefulness and need of the product in the kitchen. Thus, there are different types of utensils being found of common practice in the kitchen. These products are easy to remember and are used more and more in kitchen operations. The individuals (participants in this case) are more prone to make use of these utensils, and are thus more easily able to recall the products in their list. These products have different features attached with them. For example, spoon and wooden spoon are common words to some extend. These are used more and more in a similar manner. Therefore, the individuals did not need to put up much of their efforts to recall these products at once. Utensils such as saucer and sauce pan are somewhat related terms. The Participant 3 was able to recall these utensils in a flow. The main reason for this might be because of the relatedness of these products. Additionally, sink plunger and sink plug are also the related terms. The 3rd participant was able to identify these products also at once. Therefore, there are some of the products of common practice. However, others are not commonly used in the kitchen for daily use. The products of more use are easily listed by the participants, whereas for the rarely used ones, it is required that they memorise them before listing. However, depending on the use and need of these utensils, the participants listed them in different order. They have also covered different range of products in their list. The factor again depends on ones use and need of the product. Answer 7 From the list of words provided, I have selected guess word. Using this word, the below sections would have ten examples at place. Although there are n number of sentences that can be formed from any grammar word, but as per the requirement, I have made use of the word to write here 10 examples. The search on web had provided me with very large number of examples to select from, but I have tried to do the selection of examples for each of the 10th (or sometimes may be more then that) selection. The focus I had used is to try to cover wide range of areas to write different kind of examples hereon. The below are the examples written in my own words:- The word guess in dictionary means (The American Heritage, 2009; Murphy, 2010):- To predict about anything, without the sufficient available information To assert about anything without complete details Word Guess My last birthday was an astonishing event for me. I guess; I was floating in the air due to the grant arrangement done by my parents to celebrate the day for me. Hereon, the speaker made use of the word guess to exemplify his last birthday party in which he enjoyed the day and felt like he was floating in the air. The floating in air here means that he would remember the day due to importance attached with it. Thus, the use of word here is not exactly in line with the dictionary meaning, although the interpretation is same. The blue sky is today covered with clouds. I guess it would rain. Hereon, the speaker assumes that it would rain from the limited information he has. He is estimating that rainfall would occur because of the clouds all around and does not make use of other information sources, such as weather forecast or any other source to identify humidity level etc. My net book is not working today. I guess there is some problem with the software of it due to some virus attack. Hereon, as the speaker says that his net book is not working properly, he assumes that there is the problem in software part of the net book (not the hardware part as per his saying) and this is due to the attack of virus. I had worked hard to prepare for exams during my last summer. I guess I would top the class this time. Here, the speaker assumes that his hard work would make him attain good marks in the class examination, so that he can attain top position in the class. I guess you are squeezing against my proposal in the company, as the boss is not entertaining me anymore now. Here, the speaker is suspicious about the change in behaviour of his boss. He assumes it because of his the other person. Thus, the dictionary meaning is well used in the example for this case. The economy is improving now after the crash of economy of US in the year 2008; I guess it would not happen again. The speaker here is making an assumption from very limited information. As per his words, the present economy is improved now after the crisis- situation for the year 2008, and he assumes from this, that the economy would continue its growth and would not fail further. This seems to be very tough assumption made by him. My son had failed in his last examination due to his unhealthy situation during exams, but now he is perfectly fit to give the exams. I guess he would score well this time. Here father says that his son had failed in the last examination due to his unhealthy situation. This time, he makes an assumption that his son would score well this time due to his good health. Again, this is in line with the meaning of the word guess. Brazil had performed great in the last soccer against England. I guess Brazil is maintaining good fitness of its players. Here the speaker makes assumption from the good performance of Brazilian team, that its players are physically fit. This is mainly due to the reason that the team players are performing good. Thus, the speaker has made use of the word guess in the right manner. My all students are working hard day and night to score first class in this examination. I guess this motivation is due to the conference they attended last week. Here, the teacher assumes that his students are increasingly making efforts to gain better marks in the class. This is mainly due to the reason that they had attended the conference of motivation last week. Thus, it is assumed that the conference has helped the students to work hard for getting better marks. My uncle is very good in stock market analysis. I guess he took the right decision to invest in the shares of XYZ Company. Hereon, the speaker assumes that the strong knowledge of his uncle, in stock market would not fail. He assumes that his uncle would never make any wrong decision. Uncles investment in the shares of company XYZ would not be a wrong decision as per the assumption of speaker. Thus, the meaning of the word guess is again similar to that of the dictionary meaning hereon. Thus, there was quite a mixed approach found in the results. These are quite in line with the dictionary meaning at most of the instances. However, the first sentence, in spite of the similar meaning, is used in a different manner. Answer 8 The session here uses discourse strategies to explore the speech of Tony Blair. Discourse strategies are quite a common way to evaluate the strategy used by the speaker (or speakers) to share their thoughts with others. In this process, it becomes mandatory for one to evaluate the discourse in a thorough manner. Zammuner (1981) designed these discourse strategies. The discussion is about the social and linguistic context to describe the way in which the speaker shares his thoughts in front of the whole genera. The person also uses the approach of rephrasing. However, at some of the instances, he used quite common ways of explanations. The speaker in the given details has made use of the narrative discourse strategy. He is recalling everything he had experienced right from the start. The speaker has made use of descriptive sentences in his speech. The socio cultural knowledge studied well by Drew (1992) has been explored in the speech. The speaker started with an effort to thank all those people who had helped him in one or the other way to be at such a position. The author had then used his narrative approach to describe his past. He discussed the matter with all the people around to describe the ways in which he started with the work. There is no standard pattern in which, the discourse strategy of linguistic nature and interactional nature correlate with each other (Stubbe, 1999). There shall be the requirement to follow set of patterns in order to attain outcomes. The author had initially used the approach for transmission of his sentences to the audience. The use of socio linguistic approach by him helps in creating an environment in which all the audience feels comfortable for being their. The sensual lines used by the speaker such as Its about friendship, art, culture, sport. Its about being a fully paid up member of the human race before being a fully paid up member of the Labour party. These lines demonstrate the degree of sense in which speaker says that he lived in the very good environment, which is full of comfort. These points have raised the attention of the audience. The satisfactory words motivated listeners to take an interest in hearing. These adds to the liveliness of the speech. The speaker has also thanked all the people for their support in one or the other way to make him reach to the position he reached at present. The speaker had also made an effort to make the environment cool making use of his sense of humour. His sentence I know I look a lot older. Thats what being leader of the Labour party does to you. Is followed by the sentence Actually, looking round some of you look a lot older. This showed that he thanked the people for considering him as an important part of the society. Just after this thought, he said that he has grown older in the work place. This was said with an attempt to make the joyous scenario in the hall. He followed this sentence by saying that he is not only the old person, but others are even older then him. Thus, the approach made use of the humorous environment to maintain the liveliness of the environment. The people increasingly took interest in his speech. The confidence of the speaker shall be appreciated. He has made use of a good sense of variation in his speech to make the scenario more interesting. His thoughts started from the time he started being the part of the society. He explained how he went to the John Burton in a narrative manner. Further, he explored the way he got response from John Burton at his home. This helped him in understanding that the human beings are of top priority. The human beings should be given due importance for managing any task. These should not be ignored. The socio linguistic environment should be there for one and all. Individuals shall actively participate in the speech program by making the lively environment. There should not be any lack of confidence in the people participating in any discussion. He added that the staff of NHS was of quite importance to make them reach to this level. The information exchange is of supreme importance, without which, the work practices can fail abruptly (Coupland, 1991; Borjars, 2010). Overall, the speaker in sharing his thoughts in front of the whole crowd has used a very good approach. His ideas have been clearly explored. He has made good use of the political sort of speech to attract the peoples attention (Holmes, 1999). The flow of the whole speech was quite appreciable. The speaker has made good use of the selected discourse strategies to cover wide range of topics and attract the attention of listeners. All the individuals must have been quite affected by his speech. The narration of the past record of the speaker was well supported to show his level of satisfaction being thereon with the society. The strategic choice of individuals to consider more and more the people as an important asset was also done. The speaker has used his discourse strategies for covering these wide range of topics to explore his ideas. However, he could have made a bit more interesting environment by making use of the conversational discourse strategy in which all the individuals would have been participating in the discussion. That would have added to the importance of the speech session of Blair.

Examination Of Music History :: essays research papers fc

A verbal art like poetry is reflective; it stops to think. Music is immediate, it goes on to become." - W.H. Auden. This quote best explains the complex art of music. Music is an elaborate art form that will always remain ever changing. Music developed drastically from it's beginning in the Prehistoric era to the 14th Century. The exact origin of music is unknown. It is known that music was used in prehistoric times in magical or spiritual rituals but no other use is known. This knowledge is borne out of the fact that music still forms a vital part of most religious ceremonies today. The history of Greek music is problematic. Although there are frequent references to musical performance in Greek manuscripts, there are less than twelve fragments of actual Greek music, including both vocal and instrumental music, that have survived. It is impossible to fully understand the notation to make an authentic performance. For the Greeks, music was of divine origin. According to Greek mythology, the gods themselves invented music and it's instruments. Many of the early myths told of the powerful effects of music. Music played an important part in both the public and private lives of the Greeks. They believed it could deeply affect human behavior. Greek music was built up of a series of distinct modes, each with it's own name. According to the doctrine of ethos, each mode was so powerful that it gave music the ability to influence human actions in a precise way. The Phrygian mode expressed passionate and intimate emotions, where as the Dorian mode produced forceful, rigid feelings. In later Greek history the doctrine of ethos was widely argued by the most philosophical of men. Plato and Aristotle both had broadly different views on the power and importance of music. The persocratic philosopher Pythagoras was even interested enough in music to develop the numerical octave system that we still use today. The Classical Greeks used music in much of their drama and by the time Greece was made a Roman province, music dominated dramatic performances and social activities. There is not a great deal of original Roman music. Most of the music that did come out of the Roman era was derived from the Greeks. Despite this, there was definite musical activity in the later Roman Empire. An ample amount of evidence survived for instruments and a good deal of theory also.

The Surface Ocean And Land Environmental Sciences Essay

The physical environment determines where beings can populate, and the resources that are available to them. The physical environment consists of clime and chemical environment. Climate includes temperature, air current, and precipitation. The chemical environment consists of salt, sourness, gas concentrations and foods. The surface ocean has currents which move multitudes of ocean H2O fluxing from one topographic point to another. Such activity transportations heat from the Torrid Zones to the poles, which can act upon conditions clime, and distribute foods and spread beings. Surface currents are driven in gesture by air current which is parallel to the ocean ‘s surface. Deep currents are density driven and do the H2O to travel vertically. Upwelling is a mechanism of ocean circulation which deep ocean H2O rises to the surface. The effects of upwelling are take downing H2O temperature, addition in foods, and supply good piscaries. The transferring of heat by ocean currents is transferred by â€Å" great ocean conveyor belt † which links the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic oceans. Knowing the importance of the surface ocean has within our environment, this all can be altered with an addition of CO2. Surface oceans absorb CO2, hence if there is an addition of CO2 in the environment this will do chemical alterations such as an addition in sourness ( lessening in pH ) . The lessening in pH will hold an consequence on phytoplankton and zooplankton which are a major nutrient beginning to angle. Another manner an addition in CO2 can impact the surface ocean is that when there is an addition in CO2 there is a lessening in O which makes it harder for all marine animate beings to last. In drumhead there is such a thing as C rhythm, which maintains a steady sum of C dioxide in the ambiance by gas exchange which non merely affects the ocean but besides has consequence on the clime alteration in the ambiance. An addition of CO2 non merely has an consequence on the surface ocean, but besides land. Not merely do workss take C dioxide out of the ambiance, workss besides have the ability to alter the sum of vaporization depending on how much H2O workss take in from the ambiance, and how much H2O they release. Plants go through a procedure of evapotranspiration, which is the procedures of chilling and releasing of H2O through their pores. Plants need CO2 for photosynthesis utilizing their pores, when there is an addition in CO2 this affects the workss pore and causes less H2O to be released which finally affects the workss chilling. With the higher degrees of CO2 workss will acclimize the usage of H2O that is available within the dirt, workss will increase the efficiency of H2O used. 27. Compare and contrast the primary productiveness of polar, temperate and tropical oceans. Describe the physical and chemical factors that contribute to productiveness differences as map of latitude. Polar Regions are at latitudes 60-90 grades, have a temperature is ever at the freeze does non dwell of much seasonal fluctuation. The surface H2O is really cold therefore the H2O is alimentary rich. Since there is no fluctuation in temperature the H2O does non dwell of thermocline, which besides means no stratification. The great conveyor belt is used to take the high food cold H2O from the poles to warmer countries environments that are in demand to nutrient rich H2O which greatly enhances the productiveness of all dirts, workss and marine animate beings. Even though the temperatures are stop deading in the polar parts there is still fluctuations of Sun visible radiation available which produces productiveness in workss. Temperate Regions- are the parts between 30-60 grades latitude and have all seasons. The winter is wet and the summer is dry with ample precipitation all twelvemonth about. During the winter, as in polar parts stratification hardly exist and the surface ocean is rich in foods. During the winter productiveness is low because the Sun beams are at a low angle, which consequences in low productiveness because, the low photosynthesis. After the winter there is spring, spring brings plenty sunlight that beings can get down to blossom such as phytoplankton. With a greater sum of sunshine, the heater the ocean gets and a thermocline is present. Since the thermocline is present the foods are located in the deep oceans and this halts productiveness. After the summer, autumn cools the ocean and the thermocline is easy vanishing which is conveying foods back to the surface. There is high productiveness in both the spring and the autumn, spring has high productiveness because of the cold, high al imentary H2O from the winter, and spring has high productiveness by the sunlight exposure signifier the summer. The productiveness in the seasons autumn and spring are so high because of the turnover that takes topographic point. Employee turnover is the commixture of epilimnion and hypolimnion by air currents blowing on the surface. This commixture is of import for the recycling of the foods that are lost from the epilimnion during the summer. Mixing besides moves oxygen into the hypolimnion and deposits to the underside. The refilling of O is used up by the respiration of aerophilic bacteriums during the summer, increases biological activity in deep H2O zones. Tropical Regions- Tropical parts are at latitudes between 0-30 grades. The tropical parts consist of really low force per unit area which is tantamount to warm H2O temperatures. Tropical parts do non under seasonal fluctuation therefore the warm H2O remains warm, in which warm H2O lacks foods. The deficiency of foods is prevented from the warm thermocline which prevents productiveness. The tropical ocean Waterss lack foods which affects the sum of productiveness throughout this part.

Forward the Foundation Chapter 4

8 Raych looked at Hari Seldon after the two politicians had gone and fingered his mustache. It gave him satisfaction to stroke it. Here in the Streeling Sector, some men wore mustaches, but they were usually thin despicable things of uncertain color-thin despicable things, even if dark. Most men did not wear them at all and suffered with naked upper lips. Seldon didn't, for instance, and that was just as well. With his color of hair, a mustache would have been a travesty. He watched Seldon closely, waiting for him to cease being lost in thought, and then found he could wait no longer. â€Å"Dad?† he said. Seldon looked up and said, â€Å"What?† He sounded a little annoyed at having his thoughts interrupted, Raych decided. Raych said, â€Å"I don't think it was right for you to see those two guys.† â€Å"Oh? Why not?† â€Å"Well, the thin guy, whatever his name is, was the guy you made trouble for at the Field. He can't have liked it.† â€Å"But he apologized.† â€Å"He didn't mean it. But the other guy, Joranum-he can be dangerous. What if they had had weapons?† â€Å"What? Here in the University? In my office? Of course not. This isn't Billibotton. Besides, if they had tried anything, I could have handled both of them together. Easily.† â€Å"I don't know, Dad,† said Raych dubiously. â€Å"You're getting-â€Å" â€Å"Don't say it, you ungrateful monster,† said Seldon, lifting an admonishing finger. â€Å"You'll sound just like your mother and I have enough of that from her. I am not getting old-or, at least, not that old. Besides, you were with me and you're almost as skilled a Twister as I am.† Raych's nose wrinkled. â€Å"Twisting ain't much good.† (It was no use. Raych heard himself speak and knew that, even eight years out of the morass of Dahl, he still slipped into using the Dahlite accent that marked him firmly as a member of the lower class. And he was short, too, to the point where he sometimes felt stunted. But he had his mustache and no one ever patronized him twice.) He said, â€Å"What are you going to do about Joranum?† â€Å"For now, nothing.† â€Å"Well, look, Dad, I saw Joranum on TrantorVision a couple of times. I even made some holotapes of his speeches. Everyone is talking about him, so I thought I would see what he has to say. And, you know, he makes some kind of sense. I don't like him and I don't trust him, but he does make some kind of sense. He wants all sectors to have equal rights and equal opportunities-and there ain't nothing wrong with that, is there?† â€Å"Certainly not. All civilized people feel that way.† â€Å"So why don't we have that sort of stuff? Does the Emperor feel that way? Does Demerzel?† â€Å"The Emperor and the First Minister have an entire Empire to worry about. They can't concentrate all their efforts on Trantor itself. It's easy for Joranum to talk about equality. He has no responsibilities. If he were in the position to rule, he would find that his efforts would be greatly diluted by an Empire of twenty-five million planets. Not only that, but he would find himself stopped at every point by the sectors themselves. Each one wants a great deal of equality for itself-but not much equality for others. Tell me, Raych, are you of the opinion that Joranum ought to have a chance to rule, just to show what he can do?† Raych shrugged. â€Å"I don't know. I wonder. But if he had tried anything on you, I would have been at his throat before he could move two centimeters.† â€Å"Your loyalty to me, then, exceeds your concern for the Empire.† â€Å"Sure. You're my dad.† Seldon looked at Raych fondly, but behind that look he felt a trace of uncertainty. How far could Joranum's nearly hypnotic influence go? 9 Hari Seldon sat back in his chair, the vertical back giving as he did so and allowing him to assume a half-reclining position. His hands were behind his head and his eyes were unfocused. His breathing was very soft, indeed. Dors Venabili was at the other end of the room, with her viewer turned off and the microfilms back in place. She had been through a rather concentrated period of revision of her opinions on the Florina Incident in early Trantorian history and she found it rather restful to withdraw for a few moments and to speculate on what it was that Seldon was considering. It had to be psychohistory. It would probably take him the rest of his life, tracking down the byways of this semichaotic technique, and he would end with it incomplete, leaving the task to others (to Amaryl, if that young man had not also worn himself out on the matter) and breaking his heart at the need to do that. Yet it gave him a reason for living. He would live longer with the problem filling him from end to end-and that pleased her. Someday she would lose him, she knew, and she found that the thought afflicted her. It had not seemed it would at the start, when her task had been the simple one of protecting him for the sake of what he knew. When had it become a matter of personal need? How could there be so personal a need? What was there about the man that caused her to feel uneasy when he was not in her sight, even when she knew he was safe so that the deeply ingrained orders within her were not called into action? His safety was all that she had been ordered to be concerned with. How did the rest intrude itself? She had spoken of it to Demerzel long before, when the feeling had made itself unmistakable. He had regarded her gravely and said, `'You are complex, Dors, and there are no simple answers. In my life there have been several individuals whose presence made it easier for me to think, pleasanter to make my responses. I have tried to judge the ease of my responses in their presence and the unease of my responses in their final absence to see whether I was the net gainer or loser. In the process, one thing became plain. The pleasantness of their company outweighed the regret of their passing. On the whole, then, it is better to experience what you experience now than not to.† She thought: Hari will someday leave a void, and each day that someday is closer, and I must not think of it. It was to rid herself of the thought that she finally interrupted him. â€Å"What are you thinking of, Hari?† â€Å"What?† Seldon focused his eyes with an apparent effort. â€Å"Psychohistory, I assume. I imagine you've traced another blind pathway.† â€Å"Well now. That's not on my mind at all.† He laughed suddenly. â€Å"Do you want to know what I'm thinking of? Hair!† â€Å"Hair? Whose?† â€Å"Right now, yours.† He was looking at her fondly. â€Å"Is there something wrong with it? Should I dye it another color? Or perhaps, after all these years, it should go gray.† â€Å"Come! Who needs or wants gray in your hair. But it's led me to other things. Nishaya, for instance.† â€Å"Nishaya? What's that?† â€Å"It was never part of the pre-Imperial Kingdom of Trantor, so I'm not surprised you haven't heard of it. It's a world, a small one. Isolated. Unimportant. Overlooked. I only know anything at all about it because I've taken the trouble to look it up. Very few worlds out of twenty-five million can really make much of a sustained splash, but I doubt that there's another one as insignificant as Nishaya. Which is very significant, you see.† Dors shoved her reference material to one side and said, â€Å"What is this new penchant you have for paradox, which you always tell me you detest? What is this significance of insignificance?† â€Å"Oh, I don't mind paradoxes when I perpetrate them. You see, Joranum comes from Nishaya.† â€Å"Ah, it's Joranum you're concerned with.† â€Å"Yes. I've been viewing some of his speeches-at Raych's insistence. They don't make very much sense, but the total effect can be almost hypnotic. Raych is very impressed by him.† â€Å"I imagine that anyone of Dahlite origins would be, Hari. Joranum's constant call for sector equality would naturally appeal to the downtrodden heatsinkers. You remember when we were in Dahl?† â€Å"I remember it very well and of course I don't blame the lad. It just bothers me that Joranum comes from Nishaya.† Dors shrugged. â€Å"Well, Joranum has to come from somewhere and, conversely, Nishaya, like any other world, must send its people out at times, even to Trantor.† â€Å"Yes, but, as I've said, I've taken the trouble to investigate Nishaya. I've even managed to make hyperspatial contact with some minor official which cost a considerable quantity of credits that I cannot, in good conscience, charge to the department.† â€Å"And did you find anything that was worth the credits?† â€Å"I rather think so. You know, Joranum is always telling little stories to make his points, stories that are legends on his home planet of Nishaya. That serves a good purpose for him here on Trantor, since it makes him appear to be a man of the people, full of homespun philosophy. Those tales litter his speeches. They make him appear to be from a small world, to have been brought up on an isolated farm surrounded by an untamed ecology. People like it, especially Trantorians, who would rather die than be trapped somewhere in an untamed ecology but who love to dream about one just the same.† â€Å"But what of it all?† â€Å"The odd point is that not one of the stories was familiar to the person I spoke to on Nishaya.† â€Å"That's not significant, Hari. It may be a small world, but it's a world. What is current in Joranum's birth section of the world may not be current in whatever place your official came from.† â€Å"No no. Folktales, in one form or another, are usually worldwide. But aside from that, I had considerable trouble in understanding the fellow. He spoke Galactic Standard with a thick accent. I spoke to a few others on the world, just to check, and they all had the same accent.† â€Å"And what of that?† â€Å"Joranum doesn't have it. He speaks a fairly good Trantorian. It's a lot better than mine, actually. I have the Heliconian stress on the letter `r.' He doesn't. According to the records, he arrived on Trantor when he was nineteen. It is just impossible, in my opinion, to spend the first nineteen years of your life speaking that barbarous Nishayan version of Galactic Standard and then come to Trantor and lose it. However long he's been here, some trace of the accent would have remained-Look at Raych and the way he lapses into his Dahlite way of speaking on occasion.† â€Å"What do you deduce from all this?† â€Å"What I deduce-what I've been sitting here all evening, deducing like a deduction machine-is that Joranum didn't come from Nishaya at all. In fact, I think he picked Nishaya as the place to pretend to come from, simply because it is so backwoodsy, so out-of-the-way, that no one would think of checking it. He must have made a thorough computer search to find the one world least likely to allow him to be caught in a lie.† â€Å"But that's ridiculous, Hari. Why should he want to pretend to be from a world he did not come from? It would mean a great deal of falsification of records.† â€Å"And that's precisely what he has probably done. He probably has enough followers in the civil service to make that possible. Probably no one person has done as much in the way of revision and all of his followers are too fanatical to talk about it.† â€Å"But still-Why?† â€Å"Because I suspect Joranum doesn't want people to know where he really comes from.† â€Å"Why not? All worlds in the Empire are equal, both by laws and by custom.† â€Å"I don't know about that. These high-ideal theories are somehow never borne out in real life.† â€Å"Then where does he come from? Do you have any idea at all?† â€Å"Yes. Which brings us back to this matter of hair.† â€Å"What about hair?† â€Å"I sat there with Joranum, staring at him and feeling uneasy, without knowing why I was feeling uneasy. Then finally I realized that it was his hair that made me uneasy. There was something about it, a life, a gloss†¦ a perfection to it that I've never seen before. And then I knew. His hair is artificial and carefully grown on a scalp that ought to be innocent of such things.† â€Å"Ought to be?† Dors's eyes narrowed. It was clear that she suddenly understood. â€Å"Do you mean-â€Å" â€Å"Yes, I do mean. He's from the past-centered, mythology-ridden Mycogen Sector of Trantor. That's what he's been laboring to hide.† 10 Dors Venabili thought coolly about the matter. It was her only mode of thought-cool. Not for her the hot flashes of emotion. She closed her eyes to concentrate. It had been eight years since she and Hari had visited Mycogen and they hadn't been there long. There had been little to admire there except the food. The pictures arose. The harsh, puritanical, male-centered society; the emphasis on the past; the removal of all body hair, a painful process deliberately self-imposed to make themselves different so that they would â€Å"know who they were†; their legends; their memories (or fancies) of a time when they ruled the Galaxy, when their lives were prolonged, when robots existed. Dors opened her eyes and said, â€Å"Why, Hari?† â€Å"Why what, dear?† â€Å"Why should he pretend not to be from Mycogen?† She didn't think he would remember Mycogen in greater detail than she; in fact, she knew he wouldn't, but his mind was better than hers-different, certainly. Hers was a mind that only remembered and drew the obvious inferences in the fashion of a mathematic line of deduction. He had a mind that leaped unexpectedly. Seldon liked to pretend that intuition was solely the province of his assistant, Yugo Amaryl, but Dors was not fooled by that. Seldon liked to pose as the unworldly mathematician who stared at the world out of perpetually wondering eyes, but she was not fooled by that, either. â€Å"Why should he pretend not to be from Mycogen?† she repeated as he sat there, his eyes lost in an inward look that Dors always associated with his attempt to squeeze one more tiny drop of usefulness and validity out of the concepts of psycho-history. Seldon said finally, â€Å"It's a harsh society, a limiting society. There are always those who chafe over its manner of dictating every action and every thought. There are always those who find they cannot entirely be broken to the harness, who want the greater liberties available in the more secular world outside. It's understandable.† â€Å"So they force the growth of artificial hair?† â€Å"No, not generally. The average Breakaway-that's what the Mycogenians call the deserters and they despise them, of course-wears a wig. It's much simpler but much less effective. Really serious Breakaways grow false hair, I'm told. The process is difficult and expensive but is almost unnoticeable. I've never come across it before, though I've heard of it. I've spent years studying all eight hundred sectors of Trantor, trying to work out the basic rules and mathematics of psychohistory. I have little enough to show for it, unfortunately, but I have learned a few things.† â€Å"But why, then, do the Breakaways have to hide the fact that they're from Mycogen? They're not persecuted that I know of.† â€Å"No, they're not. In fact, there's no general impression that Mycogenians are inferior. It's worse than that. The Mycogenians aren't taken seriously. They're intelligen -everyone admits that-highly educated, dignified, cultured, wizards with food, almost frightening in their capacity to keep their sector prosperous-but no one takes them seriously. Their beliefs strike people outside Mycogen as ridiculous, humorous, unbelievably foolish. And that view clings even to Mycogenians who are Breakaways. A Mycogenian attempt to seize power in the government would be crushed by laughter. Being feared is nothing. Being despised, even, can be lived with. But being laughed at-that's fatal. Joranum wants to be First Minister, so he must have hair, and, to be comfortable, he must represent himself as having been brought up on some obscure world as far from Mycogen as he can possibly manage.† â€Å"Surely there are some people who are naturally bald.† â€Å"Never as completely depilated as Mycogenians force themselves to be. On the Outer Worlds, it wouldn't matter much. But Mycogen is a distant whisper to the Outer Worlds. The Mycogenians keep themselves so much to themselves that it is a rare one, indeed, who has ever left Trantor. Here on Trantor, though, it's different. People might be bald, but they usually have a fringe of hair that advertises them as nonMycogenian-or they grow facial hair. Those very few who are completely hairless-usually a pathological condition-are out of luck. I imagine they have to go around with a doctor's certificate to prove they are not Mycogenians.† Dors, frowning slightly, said, â€Å"Does this help us any?† â€Å"I'm not sure.† â€Å"Couldn't you let it be known that he is a Mycegonian?† â€Å"I'm not sure that could be done easily. He must have covered his tracks well and even if it could be done-â€Å" â€Å"Yes?† Seldon shrugged. â€Å"I don't want to invite an appeal to bigotry. The social situation on Trantor is bad enough without running the risk of loosing passions that neither I nor anyone else could then control. If I do have to resort to the matter of Mycogen, it will only be as a last resort.† â€Å"Then you want minimalism, too.† â€Å"Of course.† â€Å"Then what will you do?† â€Å"I made an appointment with Demerzel. He may know what to do.† Dors looked at him sharply. â€Å"Hari, are you falling into the trap of expecting Demerzel to solve every problem for you?† â€Å"No, but perhaps he'll solve this one.† â€Å"And if he doesn't?† â€Å"Then I'll have to think of something else, won't I?† â€Å"Like what?† A look of pain crossed Seldon's face. â€Å"Dors, I don't know. Don't expect me to solve every problem, either.† 11 Eto Demerzel was not frequently seen, except by the Emperor Cleon. It was his policy to remain in the background for a variety of reasons, one of which was that his appearance changed so little with time. Hari Seldon had not seen him over a period of some years and had not spoken to him truly in private since the days of his early time on Trantor. In light of Seldon's recent unsettling meeting with Laskin Joranum, both Seldon and Demerzel felt it would be best not to advertise their relationship. A visit by Hari Seldon to the First Minister's office at the Imperial Palace would not go unnoticed, and so for reasons of security they had decided to meet in a small yet luxuriously appointed suite at the Dome's Edge Hotel, just outside the Palace grounds. Seeing Demerzel now brought back the old days achingly. The mere fact that Demerzel still looked exactly as he always had made the ache sharper. His face still had its strong regular features. He was still tall and sturdy-looking, with the same dark hair with the hint of blond. He was not handsome, but was gravely distinguished. He looked like someone's ideal picture of what an Imperial First Minister ought to look like, not at all like any such official in history before his time ever had. It was his appearance, Seldon thought, that gave him half his power over the Emperor, and therefore over the Imperial Court, and therefore over the Empire. Demerzel advanced toward him, a gentle smile curving his lips without altering in any way the gravity of his countenance. â€Å"Hari,† he said. â€Å"It is pleasant to see you. I was half-afraid you would change your mind and cancel.† â€Å"I was more than half-afraid you would, First Minister.† â€Å"Eto-if you fear using my real name.† â€Å"I couldn't. It won't come out of me. You know that.† â€Å"It will to me. Say it. I would rather like to hear it.† Seldon hesitated, as though he couldn't believe his lips could frame the words or his vocal cords sound them. â€Å"Daneel,† he said at length. â€Å"R. Daneel Olivaw,† said Demerzel. â€Å"Yes. You will dine with me, Hari. If I dine with you, I won't have to eat, which will be a relief.† â€Å"Gladly, though one-way eating is not my idea of a convivial time. Surely a bite or two-â€Å" â€Å"To please you-â€Å" â€Å"Just the same,† said Seldon, â€Å"I can't help but wonder if it is wise to spend too much time together.† â€Å"It is. Imperial orders. His Imperial Majesty wants me to.† â€Å"Why, Daneel?† â€Å"In two more years the Decennial Convention will be meeting again. You look surprised. Have you forgotten?† â€Å"Not really. I just haven't thought about it.† â€Å"Were you not going to attend? You were a hit at the last one.† â€Å"Yes. With my psychohistory. Some hit.† â€Å"You attracted the attention of the Emperor. No other mathematician did.† â€Å"It was you who were initially attracted, not the Emperor. Then I had to flee and stay out of the Imperial notice until such time as I could assure you that I had made a start on my psychohistorical research, after which you allowed me to remain in safe obscurity.† â€Å"Being the head of a prestigious Mathematics Department is scarcely obscurity.† â€Å"Yes, it is, since it hides my psychohistory.† â€Å"Ah, the food is arriving. For a while, let's talk about other things as befits friends. How is Dors?† â€Å"Wonderful. A true wife. Hounds me to death with her worries over my safety.† â€Å"That is her job.† â€Å"So she reminds me-frequently. Seriously, Daneel, I can never be sufficiently grateful to you for bringing us together.† â€Å"Thank you, Hari, but, to be truthful, I did not foresee married happiness for either of you, especially not Dors-â€Å" â€Å"Thank you for the gift just the same, however short of the actual consequences your expectations were.† â€Å"I'm delighted, but it is a gift, you will find, that may be of dubious further consequence-as is my friendship.† To this, Seldon could make no reply and so, at a gesture from Demerzel, he turned to his meal. After a while, he nodded at the morsel of fish on his fork and said, â€Å"I don't actually recognize the organism, but this is Mycogenian cooking.† â€Å"Yes, it is. I know you are fond of it.† â€Å"It's the Mycogenians' excuse for existence. Their only excuse. But they have special meaning to you. I mustn't forget that.† â€Å"The special meaning has come to an end. Their ancestors, long, long ago, inhabited the planet of Aurora. They lived three hundred years and more and were the lords of the Fifty Worlds of the Galaxy. It was an Auroran who first designed and produced me. I don't forget that; I remember it far more accurately-and with less distortion-than their Mycogenian descendants do. But then, long, long ago, I left them. I made my choice as to what the good of humanity must be and I have followed it, as best I could, all this time.† Seldon said with sudden alarm, â€Å"Can we be overheard?† Demerzel seemed amused. â€Å"If you have only thought of that now, it is far too late. But fear not, I have taken the necessary precautions. Nor have you been seen by too many eyes when you came. Nor will you be seen by too many when you leave. And those who do see you will not be surprised. I am well known to be an amateur mathematician of great pretensions but of little ability. That is a source of amusement to those at the court who are not entirely my friends and it would not surprise anyone here that I should be concerned about laying the groundwork for the forthcoming Decennial Convention. It is about the convention that I wish to consult you.† â€Å"I don't know that I can help. There is only one thing I could possibly talk about at the convention-and I can't talk about it. If I attend at all, it will only be as part of the audience. I do not intend to present any papers.† â€Å"I understand. Still, if you would like to hear something curious, His Imperial Majesty remembers you.† â€Å"Because you have kept me in his mind, I suppose.† â€Å"No. I have not labored to do so. However, His Imperial Majesty occasionally surprises me. He is aware of the forthcoming convention and he apparently remembers your talk at the earlier one. He remains interested in the matter of psychohistory and more may come of it, I must warn you. It is not beyond the bounds of possibility that he may ask to see you. The court will surely consider it a great honor-to receive the Imperial call twice in a single lifetime.† â€Å"You're joking. What could be served by my seeing him?† â€Å"In any case, if you are called to an audience, you can scarcely refuse. How are your young protegs, Yugo and Raych?† â€Å"Surely you know. I imagine you keep a close eye on me.† â€Å"Yes, I do. On your safety but not on every aspect of your life. I am afraid my duties fill much of my time and I am not all-seeing.† â€Å"Doesn't Dors report?† â€Å"She would in a crisis. Not otherwise. She is reluctant to play the role of spy in nonessentials.† Again the small smile. Seldon grunted. â€Å"My boys are doing well. Yugo is increasingly difficult to handle. He's more of a psychohistorian than I am and I think he feels I hold him back. As for Raych, he's a lovable rascal-always was. He won me over when he was a dreadful street urchin and what's more surprising is that he won over Dors. I honestly believe, Daneel, that if Dors grew sick of me and wanted to leave me, she would stay on anyway for her love of Raych.† Demerzel nodded and Seldon continued somberly. â€Å"If Rashelle of Wye hadn't found him lovable, I would not be here today. I would have been shot down-† He stirred uneasily. â€Å"I hate to think of that, Daneel. It was such an entirely accidental and unpredictable event. How could psychohistory have helped in any way?† â€Å"Have you not told me that, at best, psychohistory can deal only in probabilities and with vast numbers, not with individuals?† â€Å"But if the individual happens to be crucial-â€Å" â€Å"I suspect you will find that no individual is ever truly crucial. Not even I-or you.† â€Å"Perhaps you're right. I find that, no matter how I work away under these assumptions, I nevertheless think of myself as crucial, in a kind of supernormal egotism that transcends all sense. And you are crucial, too, which is something I have come here to discuss with you-as frankly as possible. I must know.† â€Å"Know what?† The remains of the meal had been cleared away by a porter and the room's lighting dimmed somewhat so that the walls seemed to close in and give a feeling of great privacy. Seldon said, â€Å"Joranum.† He bit off the word, as though feeling the mention of the name alone should be sufficient. â€Å"Ah. Yes.†** â€Å"You know about him?† â€Å"Of course. How could I not know?† â€Å"Well, I want to know about him, too.† â€Å"What do you want to know?† â€Å"Come, Daneel, don't play with me. Is he dangerous?† â€Å"Of course he is dangerous. Do you have any doubt of that?† â€Å"I mean, to you? To your position as First Minister?† â€Å"That is exactly what I mean. That is how he is dangerous.† â€Å"And you allow it?† Demerzel leaned forward, placing his left elbow on the table between them. â€Å"There are things that don't wait for my permission, Hari. Let us be philosophical about it. His Imperial Majesty, Cleon, First of that Name, has now been on the throne for eighteen years and for all that time I have been his Chief of Staff and then his First Minister, having served in scarcely lesser capacities during the last years of the reign of his father. It is a long time and First Ministers rarely remain that long in power.† â€Å"You are not the ordinary First Minister, Daneel, and you know it. You must remain in power while psychohistory is being developed. Don't smile at me. It's true. When we first met, eight years ago, you told me the Empire was in a state of decay and decline. Have you changed your mind about that?† â€Å"No, of course not.† â€Å"In fact, the decline is more marked now, isn't it?† â€Å"Yes, it is, though I labor to prevent that.† â€Å"And without you, what would happen? Joranum is raising the Empire against you.† â€Å"Trantor, Hari. Trantor. The Outer Worlds are solid and reasonably contented with my deeds so far, even in the midst of a declining economy and lessening trade.† â€Å"But Trantor is where it counts. Trantor-the Imperial world we're living on, the capital of the Empire, the core, the administrative center- is what can overthrow you. You cannot keep your post if Trantor says no. â€Å"I agree.† â€Å"And if you go, who will then take care of the Outer Worlds and what will keep the decline from being precipitate and the Empire from degenerating rapidly into anarchy?† â€Å"That is a possibility, certainly.† â€Å"So you must be doing something about it. Yugo is convinced that you are in deadly danger and can't maintain your position. His intuition tells him so. Dors says the same thing and explains it in terms of the Three Laws or Four of-of-â€Å" â€Å"Robotics,† put in Demerzel. â€Å"Young Raych seems attracted to Joranum's doctrines-being of Dahlite origin, you see. And I-I am uncertain, so I come to you for comfort, I suppose. Tell me that you have the situation well in hand.† â€Å"I would do so if I could. However, I have no comfort to offer. I am in danger.† â€Å"Are you doing nothing?† â€Å"No. I'm doing a great deal to contain discontent and blunt Joranum's message. If I had not done so, then perhaps I would be out of office already. But what I'm doing is not enough.† Seldon hesitated. Finally he said, â€Å"I believe that Joranum is actually a Mycogenian.† â€Å"Is that so?† â€Å"It is my opinion. I had thought we might use that against him, but I hesitate to unleash the forces of bigotry.† â€Å"You are wise to hesitate. There are many things that might be done that have side effects we do not want. You see, Hari, I don't fear leaving my post-if some successor could be found who would continue those principles that I have been using to keep the decline as slow as possible. On the other hand, if Joranum himself were to succeed me, then that, in my opinion, would be fatal.† â€Å"Then anything we can do to stop him would be suitable.† â€Å"Not entirely. The Empire can grow anarchic, even if Joranum is destroyed and I stay. I must not, then, do something that will destroy Joranum and allow me to stay-if that very deed promotes the Fall of the Empire. I have not yet been able to think of anything I might do that would surely destroy Joranum and just as surely avoid anarchy.† â€Å"Minimalism,† whispered Seldon. â€Å"Pardon me?† â€Å"Dors explained that you would be bound by minimalism.† â€Å"And so I am.† â€Å"Then my visit with you is a failure, Daneel.† â€Å"You mean that you came for comfort and didn't get it.† â€Å"I'm afraid so.† â€Å"But I saw you because I sought comfort as well.† â€Å"From me?† â€Å"From psychohistory, which should envision the route to safety that I cannot.† Seldon sighed heavily. â€Å"Daneel, psychohistory has not yet been developed to that point.† The First Minister looked at him gravely. â€Å"You've had eight years, Hari.† â€Å"It might be eight or eight hundred and it might not be developed to that point. It is an intractable problem.† Demerzel said, â€Å"I do not expect the technique to have been perfected, but you may have some sketch, some skeleton, some principle that you can use as guidance. Imperfectly, perhaps, but better than mere guesswork.† â€Å"No more than I had eight years ago,† said Seldon mournfully. â€Å"Here's what it amounts to, then. You must remain in power and Joranum must be destroyed in such a way that Imperial stability is maintained as long as possible so that I may have a reasonable chance to work out psychohistory. This cannot be done, however, unless I work out psychohistory first. Is that it?† â€Å"It would seem so, Hari.† â€Å"Then we argue in a useless circle and the Empire is destroyed.† â€Å"Unless something unforeseen happens. Unless you make something unforeseen happen.† â€Å"I? Daneel, how can I do it without psychohistory?† â€Å"I don't know, Hari.† And Seldon rose to go-in despair.